Hanaa Wahba, Adjunct Professor
This article focuses on exploring the concepts of multiculturalism and global citizenship. Incorporating multicultural and global education in the curriculum is recommended in order to facilitate learning. The main purpose of this article is to support diversity, and promote global perspectives through education. There are many definitions and views of multicultural and global education. A lot of teachers hold erroneous attitudes and false beliefs towards students’ diverse population. Modood profoundly tackled the concept of multiculturalism, whereas Noddings focused on the notion of global citizenship. Thus, the notions of multiculturalism and global citizenship are considered key ingredients of incorporating multicultural and global education in the curriculum.
First, there is much to admire in Modood’s defense and definition of multiculturalism, developed in his book Multiculturalism: Themes for the 21st Century Series. According to Modood (2010), multiculturalism is positively linked to more inclusive notions of citizenship and national identity and belonging. His book is a mirror that presents a persuasive and well-argued restatement of multiculturalism. Second, in Noddings’s book, Educating Citizens for Global Awareness, she succeeded in highlighting a relationship between multiculturalism and global education. Noddings (2005) presents global citizenship from a modern psychological perspective which requires each individual to value and respect all diverse cultures.
Modood (2010) profoundly referred to cultural differences while explaining the notion of multiculturalism. On the other side, many researchers and practitioners explained various definitions and explanations about multicultural education. One can say that multiculturalism is used in a broader view as it is related to politics, and is often used to describe societies; whereas multicultural education has almost always been associated with schooling. Nodding and other researchers hold different perspectives with regard to the definition and role of multicultural and global education. Noddings explicitly defined the notion of global citizenship. The conceptual framework proposed in this article focused on exploring the terms of multiculturalism and global citizenship; it also suggests incorporating multicultural and global education in the curriculum.
Modood (2010) profoundly defined the concept of multiculturalism as a process of integration that deals with all groups, not just individuals. According to Modood,
multiculturalism is a term that has a deeply political view; it guides people’s
interaction, attitudes, and behaviors from a diverse cultural background. Similarly, Garbarino (1982) elucidated that multiculturalism is a principle that relates to democracy, and it tackles the individual’s rights to participate in a democratic nation.
He highlighted that the concept is closely related to the individuals’ human rights, their sharing of power, and their equal participation in all social contexts. Similarly, Modood (2010) believed that each individual should actively participate in various activities in society. He threw light on multilogical concept which explains what it means to be a citizen. According to him, allowing adjustments, modulations, combined with conversations are good tools that enable the individual to have an equal participation in society (Modood, 2010).
Many researchers and scholars have explained and defined multicultural education. Aldridge and Goldman (2007) defined multicultural education as a reform movement that is designed to restructure educational institutions in order to develop students’ skills and attitudes and be able to function effectively in a diverse world. Similarly, Bennett (2003) explained multicultural education as “an approach to teaching and learning that is based upon democratic values and beliefs and that affirms cultural pluralism within culturally diverse societies in an interdependent world” (p.14). Furthermore, Gay (1994) stated that multicultural education is an educational reform movement, and a process intended to change the structure of educational organizations; this process helps all students to have an equal chance to enhance their learning. Thus, the challenge for educators is to present an effective multicultural education in which all students can learn how to respect and accept diverse cultures (Aldridge & Goldman,
2007).
Researchers hold contradictory perspectives with regard to the definition and role of
multicultural education. Banks (1993) conceptualized that multicultural education is an education of freedom in which its main goal is to help students to develop the knowledge, attitudes, and skills to actively participate in a democratic society.
Accordingly, Moodod’s perspective about multiculturalism, and how each
individual should participate in society, is allied with Banks’ conceptualization about multicultural education. Furthermore, Gay (1994) suggested that cultural diversity provides the direction for multicultural instruction and for selected policy reforms.
Therefore, multicultural education calls for all aspects of education to always be examined, critiqued, and transformed in order to improve all students’
learning, regardless of their cultural background (Gorski, 2002).
There are other definitions of multicultural education that is associated with
schooling. Nieto (1992) defined multicultural education as a process of comprehensive and basic education for all students. Multicultural instruction challenges all
forms of discrimination in schools and society (Nieto, 1992). Banks (1994) threw light on five important dimensions of multicultural education which are: “content integration, knowledge construction process, prejudice reduction, equity pedagogy, and empowering school culture and social structure” (p.54).
On the contrary, Gay (1988) focused on the importance of modifying “the structure, procedure, substance, and values of education in order to reflect the cultural, ethnic, linguistic, social, and racial pluralism in the United States” (as cited in Okoye-Johnson,
2011, p. 1254). Accordingly, proponents of multicultural education (Banks, 1995; Bennett, 1990; Coelho, 1994; Davidman& Davidman, 1994; Gay, 1988; Grant, 1977; Nieto, 1992) explicitly clarified the importance of incorporating multicultural education in the curriculum of schools in order to improve the quality of education and enhance
the students’ racial attitudes towards others. With the multiple definitions and explanations, there is not an agreed definition of the term of multicultural education among practitioners and researchers.
Noddings (2005) conceptualization to the notion of global citizenship suggested a relationship between multiculturalism and global citizenship education. For instance, she stated that it is important to recognize that “preparation for global citizenship should entail multiculturalism” (p.76). Noddings (2005) threw light on the individuals’ important roles in society; for example, she mentioned that “Global citizenship demands an understanding and sympathy for people’s attachment to place” (p. 65). In order to become a global citizen, one should “care about their homeplaces and those of others, and they have to care enough to engage in serious study of both natural and political
problems” (Noddings, 2005, p. 66). She continued to explain that everyone should respect and value diverse cultural background as a whole. According to her pedagogical perspective, she clearly pointed out that the multicultural curricula should be focused on developing global citizens because all students should be taught to “value the
lives of all people, not just those of our own nation” (Noddings, 2005, p. 17).
Gaudelli (2003), in contrast, defined global citizenship education as a curriculum that helps students to be prepared to interconnect with the world that is full of diverse information; students also should have an active involvement in a diverse society, and should have a “socially meaningful action” (p.11).
The notion of global citizenship education is getting more attention in the curricula.
According to many researchers, it is important to develop students’ democratic understanding, decision making, controversial issues, and civic action; thus it should be mentioned in both the multicultural and global education (Hahn, 2001). For many teachers, it is not easy to comprehend that global citizenship education is not just another civics class. It helps students to promote their cultural, national and global
identifications (Banks, 2004). For example, it is the teachers’ roles to guide their students to identify the problems in their school environment. Teachers should direct students to write letters to the school administration, addressing an issue and requesting that a problem be resolved (Gordon, 2007). Accordingly, administrators should give attention to the problem and make suggested improvements. This allows students to be culturally knowledgeable and able to interact with people from different cultural groups and backgrounds. Noddings (2005) threw light on the importance of designing the social studies curriculum in the U.S. to help students to be prepared for being active citizens in their society. Moreover, Tye (1990) explained that most teachers use global education with middle and high school students to helps students to recognize the
interconnectedness of the world through a study of the problems and issues that
cut across national boundaries. Thus, students should be aware of diverse political and social ideas in their world.
Overall, one can’t deny the vitality of incorporating multicultural and global education
in the curriculum. According to the Census Bureau, there is an increase of the number of minority population every year and it dramatically changes the demographics of the United States (Okoye-Johnson, 2011). According to Pallas, Natriello, and McDill (1989), by the year of 2020, culturally and linguistically diverse student populations will include approximately half of the public school population in the U.S. Thus, the existence of various cultures requires the need to assure democracy among all ethnic groups (Okoye-Johnson, 2011). Gabelko, Michaelis (1981) and Lynch (1987) stated that “the reduction-of-prejudice dimension of ME is geared toward helping students acquire more democratic values, behaviors, and attitudes” (as cited in Okoye-Johnson, 2011, p. 1252). Thus, multicultural and global education should be considered to provide ethnic minorities with a sense of belongings in school; it is the teacher’s role to foster inclusion in an increasingly diverse society.
Inevitably, one can admit that not only enhancing teaching and working with diverse students is important, but also multicultural competence help students to be effective global citizens and workers (Goodman, 2013). Banks (2001) profoundly elucidated that students’ ability to communicate and negotiate among diverse cultures enable them to become successful in a diverse world. Global citizenship education should help students to “develop clarified global identifications and deep understandings of their roles in the world community” (Banks, 2004, p.1). Thus, the challenge for educators is to present an effective multicultural and global education in which all students can learn how to
respect and accept diverse cultures (Aldridge & Goldman, 2007). Social and cultural interaction between minority groups and established residents builds cross-cultural understanding that helps all community members to comfortably interact with each other and broadens their appreciation for all different cultures (Smith, 2006).
Consequently, multicultural and global educations are the key ingredients of
quality education. From a pedagogical point of view, it is important to incorporate multicultural and global education in the curriculum in order to reduce bias, and develop
understanding and respect among diverse student populations.
To sum up, there are a lot of benefits of multicultural and global education. Both can help students to be prepared to live in a culturally integrated global society (Gaudelli, 2003). Moreover, both of them can teach students how to address issues of diversity (Gaudelli, 2003). Brown and Marchant (2002) suggested that using multicultural education enables educators to investigate their own values, knowledge, and teaching practices about diversity to avoid bias and prejudice. It is the educators and practitioners role to foster diversity, inclusion, and cultural awareness in the classroom. Thus, the conceptual framework in this article can be used as a vehicle to generate interest in further exploration of multiculturalism and global citizenship; it should encourage teachers to effectively incorporate multicultural and global education in the curriculum.
References
Aldridge, J., & Goldman, R. (2007). Current issues and trends in education. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Banks, J.A. (1993). Multicultural education for young children:
Racial and ethnic attitudes and their modification. New York, NY: Macmillan.
Banks, J. A. (1994). Multiethnic education: Theory and practice. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Banks, J. A. (1995). Multicultural education: Historical development, dimensions, and practice.
Banks, J. A. (2001). Cultural diversity and education: Foundations, curriculum, and teaching. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Banks, J. A. (2004). Teaching for Social Justice, Diversity, and Citizenship in a Global World, The Educational Forum, 68.
Bennett, C. I. (1990). Comprehensive multicultural education: Theory and practice (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Bennett, C.I. (2003). Comprehensive multicultural education: Theory and practice (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Brown, C., & Marchant, C. (2002). Play in practice: Case studies in young children’s play. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.
Cho, G., & Decastro, D. (2005). Is ignorance bliss? Pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward multicultural education.
The High School Journal, 89(2), 24–28. Coelho, E. (1994). Learning together in the multicultural classroom. Markham, Canada: Pippin.
Davidman, L., & Davidman, P. T. (1994). Teaching with a
multicultural perspective: A practical guide. New York, NY: Longman.
Fowers, B. J., and Davidov, B. J. (2006). The virtue of multiculturalism: personal transformation, character, and openness to the other. American Psychologist, 61, 581-594.
Gabelko, N. H., & Michaelis, J. U. (1981). Reducing adolescent prejudice: A handbook. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Garbarino, J. (1982). Children and families in the social environment. New York: Aldie Press.
Gay, G. (1988). Designing relevant curricula for diverse learners. Education and
Urban Society, 20, 327–340. doi:10.1177/0013124588020004003
Gaudelli, W. 2003. World class: Teaching and learning in global times. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Gay, G. (1994). A synthesis of scholarship in multicultural education. Oakbrook, IL: North Central Regional Educational Laboratory.
Goodman, D. (2013). Cultural competency for social justice. Educators Blog.
Gordon, T. (2007). Teaching young children a second language. Westport, CT and London: Praeger Publishers.
Gorski, P. C. (2002). Dismantling the digital divide: A multicultural education framework. Multicultural Education, 10(1), 28–30.
Grant, C. A. (1977). Multicultural education: Commitments, issues, and applications. Washington, DC: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Hahn, C. L. (2001). Democratic understanding: Cross-national perspective. Theory into Practice, 40(1), 14-22.
Lynch, J. (1987). Prejudice reduction and the schools. New York, NY: Nichols.
Lynch, E., & Hanson, M. (1998). Developingcross-cultural competence: A guide for working with children and theirfamilies. Baltimore: Paul H. Brooks.
Modood, T. (2010). Multiculturalism: Themes for the 21st Century Series. Oxford: John Wiley and Sons Ltd. National Center for Culturally Responsive Educational Systems(2006).
Nieto, S. (1992). Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of multicultural education. New York, NY: Longman.
Nieto, S. (2002). Language, culture, and teaching: Critical perspectives for a new century. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Noddings, N (2005). Educating Citizens for Global Awareness. New York: Teachers College Press.
Okoye-Johnson, O. (2011). Does Multicultural Education improve students’ racial attitudes? Implications for closing the achievement gap. Journal of Black Studies, 42(8), 1252–1274. doi:10.1177/0021934711408901
Pallas, A.M., Natriello, G. & McDill, E. L. (1989). The changing natures of the
disadvantaged population: Current dimensions and future trends. Educational Researcher, 18 (5), 16–22. doi:10.3102/0013189X018005016
Smith, S. (2006). Promising practicing in social and cultural interaction. GCIR's Immigrant Integration Toolkit, 169–186.
Tye, K. A. (1990). Introduction: The world at a crossroads. In K. A. Tye (Ed.), Global education: From thought to action, 1-9.
First, there is much to admire in Modood’s defense and definition of multiculturalism, developed in his book Multiculturalism: Themes for the 21st Century Series. According to Modood (2010), multiculturalism is positively linked to more inclusive notions of citizenship and national identity and belonging. His book is a mirror that presents a persuasive and well-argued restatement of multiculturalism. Second, in Noddings’s book, Educating Citizens for Global Awareness, she succeeded in highlighting a relationship between multiculturalism and global education. Noddings (2005) presents global citizenship from a modern psychological perspective which requires each individual to value and respect all diverse cultures.
Modood (2010) profoundly referred to cultural differences while explaining the notion of multiculturalism. On the other side, many researchers and practitioners explained various definitions and explanations about multicultural education. One can say that multiculturalism is used in a broader view as it is related to politics, and is often used to describe societies; whereas multicultural education has almost always been associated with schooling. Nodding and other researchers hold different perspectives with regard to the definition and role of multicultural and global education. Noddings explicitly defined the notion of global citizenship. The conceptual framework proposed in this article focused on exploring the terms of multiculturalism and global citizenship; it also suggests incorporating multicultural and global education in the curriculum.
Modood (2010) profoundly defined the concept of multiculturalism as a process of integration that deals with all groups, not just individuals. According to Modood,
multiculturalism is a term that has a deeply political view; it guides people’s
interaction, attitudes, and behaviors from a diverse cultural background. Similarly, Garbarino (1982) elucidated that multiculturalism is a principle that relates to democracy, and it tackles the individual’s rights to participate in a democratic nation.
He highlighted that the concept is closely related to the individuals’ human rights, their sharing of power, and their equal participation in all social contexts. Similarly, Modood (2010) believed that each individual should actively participate in various activities in society. He threw light on multilogical concept which explains what it means to be a citizen. According to him, allowing adjustments, modulations, combined with conversations are good tools that enable the individual to have an equal participation in society (Modood, 2010).
Many researchers and scholars have explained and defined multicultural education. Aldridge and Goldman (2007) defined multicultural education as a reform movement that is designed to restructure educational institutions in order to develop students’ skills and attitudes and be able to function effectively in a diverse world. Similarly, Bennett (2003) explained multicultural education as “an approach to teaching and learning that is based upon democratic values and beliefs and that affirms cultural pluralism within culturally diverse societies in an interdependent world” (p.14). Furthermore, Gay (1994) stated that multicultural education is an educational reform movement, and a process intended to change the structure of educational organizations; this process helps all students to have an equal chance to enhance their learning. Thus, the challenge for educators is to present an effective multicultural education in which all students can learn how to respect and accept diverse cultures (Aldridge & Goldman,
2007).
Researchers hold contradictory perspectives with regard to the definition and role of
multicultural education. Banks (1993) conceptualized that multicultural education is an education of freedom in which its main goal is to help students to develop the knowledge, attitudes, and skills to actively participate in a democratic society.
Accordingly, Moodod’s perspective about multiculturalism, and how each
individual should participate in society, is allied with Banks’ conceptualization about multicultural education. Furthermore, Gay (1994) suggested that cultural diversity provides the direction for multicultural instruction and for selected policy reforms.
Therefore, multicultural education calls for all aspects of education to always be examined, critiqued, and transformed in order to improve all students’
learning, regardless of their cultural background (Gorski, 2002).
There are other definitions of multicultural education that is associated with
schooling. Nieto (1992) defined multicultural education as a process of comprehensive and basic education for all students. Multicultural instruction challenges all
forms of discrimination in schools and society (Nieto, 1992). Banks (1994) threw light on five important dimensions of multicultural education which are: “content integration, knowledge construction process, prejudice reduction, equity pedagogy, and empowering school culture and social structure” (p.54).
On the contrary, Gay (1988) focused on the importance of modifying “the structure, procedure, substance, and values of education in order to reflect the cultural, ethnic, linguistic, social, and racial pluralism in the United States” (as cited in Okoye-Johnson,
2011, p. 1254). Accordingly, proponents of multicultural education (Banks, 1995; Bennett, 1990; Coelho, 1994; Davidman& Davidman, 1994; Gay, 1988; Grant, 1977; Nieto, 1992) explicitly clarified the importance of incorporating multicultural education in the curriculum of schools in order to improve the quality of education and enhance
the students’ racial attitudes towards others. With the multiple definitions and explanations, there is not an agreed definition of the term of multicultural education among practitioners and researchers.
Noddings (2005) conceptualization to the notion of global citizenship suggested a relationship between multiculturalism and global citizenship education. For instance, she stated that it is important to recognize that “preparation for global citizenship should entail multiculturalism” (p.76). Noddings (2005) threw light on the individuals’ important roles in society; for example, she mentioned that “Global citizenship demands an understanding and sympathy for people’s attachment to place” (p. 65). In order to become a global citizen, one should “care about their homeplaces and those of others, and they have to care enough to engage in serious study of both natural and political
problems” (Noddings, 2005, p. 66). She continued to explain that everyone should respect and value diverse cultural background as a whole. According to her pedagogical perspective, she clearly pointed out that the multicultural curricula should be focused on developing global citizens because all students should be taught to “value the
lives of all people, not just those of our own nation” (Noddings, 2005, p. 17).
Gaudelli (2003), in contrast, defined global citizenship education as a curriculum that helps students to be prepared to interconnect with the world that is full of diverse information; students also should have an active involvement in a diverse society, and should have a “socially meaningful action” (p.11).
The notion of global citizenship education is getting more attention in the curricula.
According to many researchers, it is important to develop students’ democratic understanding, decision making, controversial issues, and civic action; thus it should be mentioned in both the multicultural and global education (Hahn, 2001). For many teachers, it is not easy to comprehend that global citizenship education is not just another civics class. It helps students to promote their cultural, national and global
identifications (Banks, 2004). For example, it is the teachers’ roles to guide their students to identify the problems in their school environment. Teachers should direct students to write letters to the school administration, addressing an issue and requesting that a problem be resolved (Gordon, 2007). Accordingly, administrators should give attention to the problem and make suggested improvements. This allows students to be culturally knowledgeable and able to interact with people from different cultural groups and backgrounds. Noddings (2005) threw light on the importance of designing the social studies curriculum in the U.S. to help students to be prepared for being active citizens in their society. Moreover, Tye (1990) explained that most teachers use global education with middle and high school students to helps students to recognize the
interconnectedness of the world through a study of the problems and issues that
cut across national boundaries. Thus, students should be aware of diverse political and social ideas in their world.
Overall, one can’t deny the vitality of incorporating multicultural and global education
in the curriculum. According to the Census Bureau, there is an increase of the number of minority population every year and it dramatically changes the demographics of the United States (Okoye-Johnson, 2011). According to Pallas, Natriello, and McDill (1989), by the year of 2020, culturally and linguistically diverse student populations will include approximately half of the public school population in the U.S. Thus, the existence of various cultures requires the need to assure democracy among all ethnic groups (Okoye-Johnson, 2011). Gabelko, Michaelis (1981) and Lynch (1987) stated that “the reduction-of-prejudice dimension of ME is geared toward helping students acquire more democratic values, behaviors, and attitudes” (as cited in Okoye-Johnson, 2011, p. 1252). Thus, multicultural and global education should be considered to provide ethnic minorities with a sense of belongings in school; it is the teacher’s role to foster inclusion in an increasingly diverse society.
Inevitably, one can admit that not only enhancing teaching and working with diverse students is important, but also multicultural competence help students to be effective global citizens and workers (Goodman, 2013). Banks (2001) profoundly elucidated that students’ ability to communicate and negotiate among diverse cultures enable them to become successful in a diverse world. Global citizenship education should help students to “develop clarified global identifications and deep understandings of their roles in the world community” (Banks, 2004, p.1). Thus, the challenge for educators is to present an effective multicultural and global education in which all students can learn how to
respect and accept diverse cultures (Aldridge & Goldman, 2007). Social and cultural interaction between minority groups and established residents builds cross-cultural understanding that helps all community members to comfortably interact with each other and broadens their appreciation for all different cultures (Smith, 2006).
Consequently, multicultural and global educations are the key ingredients of
quality education. From a pedagogical point of view, it is important to incorporate multicultural and global education in the curriculum in order to reduce bias, and develop
understanding and respect among diverse student populations.
To sum up, there are a lot of benefits of multicultural and global education. Both can help students to be prepared to live in a culturally integrated global society (Gaudelli, 2003). Moreover, both of them can teach students how to address issues of diversity (Gaudelli, 2003). Brown and Marchant (2002) suggested that using multicultural education enables educators to investigate their own values, knowledge, and teaching practices about diversity to avoid bias and prejudice. It is the educators and practitioners role to foster diversity, inclusion, and cultural awareness in the classroom. Thus, the conceptual framework in this article can be used as a vehicle to generate interest in further exploration of multiculturalism and global citizenship; it should encourage teachers to effectively incorporate multicultural and global education in the curriculum.
References
Aldridge, J., & Goldman, R. (2007). Current issues and trends in education. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Banks, J.A. (1993). Multicultural education for young children:
Racial and ethnic attitudes and their modification. New York, NY: Macmillan.
Banks, J. A. (1994). Multiethnic education: Theory and practice. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Banks, J. A. (1995). Multicultural education: Historical development, dimensions, and practice.
Banks, J. A. (2001). Cultural diversity and education: Foundations, curriculum, and teaching. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Banks, J. A. (2004). Teaching for Social Justice, Diversity, and Citizenship in a Global World, The Educational Forum, 68.
Bennett, C. I. (1990). Comprehensive multicultural education: Theory and practice (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Bennett, C.I. (2003). Comprehensive multicultural education: Theory and practice (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Brown, C., & Marchant, C. (2002). Play in practice: Case studies in young children’s play. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.
Cho, G., & Decastro, D. (2005). Is ignorance bliss? Pre-service teachers’ attitudes toward multicultural education.
The High School Journal, 89(2), 24–28. Coelho, E. (1994). Learning together in the multicultural classroom. Markham, Canada: Pippin.
Davidman, L., & Davidman, P. T. (1994). Teaching with a
multicultural perspective: A practical guide. New York, NY: Longman.
Fowers, B. J., and Davidov, B. J. (2006). The virtue of multiculturalism: personal transformation, character, and openness to the other. American Psychologist, 61, 581-594.
Gabelko, N. H., & Michaelis, J. U. (1981). Reducing adolescent prejudice: A handbook. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
Garbarino, J. (1982). Children and families in the social environment. New York: Aldie Press.
Gay, G. (1988). Designing relevant curricula for diverse learners. Education and
Urban Society, 20, 327–340. doi:10.1177/0013124588020004003
Gaudelli, W. 2003. World class: Teaching and learning in global times. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Gay, G. (1994). A synthesis of scholarship in multicultural education. Oakbrook, IL: North Central Regional Educational Laboratory.
Goodman, D. (2013). Cultural competency for social justice. Educators Blog.
Gordon, T. (2007). Teaching young children a second language. Westport, CT and London: Praeger Publishers.
Gorski, P. C. (2002). Dismantling the digital divide: A multicultural education framework. Multicultural Education, 10(1), 28–30.
Grant, C. A. (1977). Multicultural education: Commitments, issues, and applications. Washington, DC: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Hahn, C. L. (2001). Democratic understanding: Cross-national perspective. Theory into Practice, 40(1), 14-22.
Lynch, J. (1987). Prejudice reduction and the schools. New York, NY: Nichols.
Lynch, E., & Hanson, M. (1998). Developingcross-cultural competence: A guide for working with children and theirfamilies. Baltimore: Paul H. Brooks.
Modood, T. (2010). Multiculturalism: Themes for the 21st Century Series. Oxford: John Wiley and Sons Ltd. National Center for Culturally Responsive Educational Systems(2006).
Nieto, S. (1992). Affirming diversity: The sociopolitical context of multicultural education. New York, NY: Longman.
Nieto, S. (2002). Language, culture, and teaching: Critical perspectives for a new century. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Noddings, N (2005). Educating Citizens for Global Awareness. New York: Teachers College Press.
Okoye-Johnson, O. (2011). Does Multicultural Education improve students’ racial attitudes? Implications for closing the achievement gap. Journal of Black Studies, 42(8), 1252–1274. doi:10.1177/0021934711408901
Pallas, A.M., Natriello, G. & McDill, E. L. (1989). The changing natures of the
disadvantaged population: Current dimensions and future trends. Educational Researcher, 18 (5), 16–22. doi:10.3102/0013189X018005016
Smith, S. (2006). Promising practicing in social and cultural interaction. GCIR's Immigrant Integration Toolkit, 169–186.
Tye, K. A. (1990). Introduction: The world at a crossroads. In K. A. Tye (Ed.), Global education: From thought to action, 1-9.